Types of students, defined by language background and English language proficiency:

• English only (EO): Students who speak English as a native language and do not speak any other language.
  
  
• Language-minority (LM): Students from homes where the primary language spoken is not English. LM students may be limited or fluent English proficient (see below).
  
  
• Limited English proficient (LEP), or English language learner (ELL): Language minority students whose difficulty comprehending, speaking, reading or writing English affects their school performance in English.¹
  
  
• Fluent English proficient (FEP): Language minority students who have been assessed as able to comprehend, speak, read and write English such that they can function in a mainstream English classroom without any special language services or accommodations. In California, two distinctions are commonly made:

• Initially fluent English proficient (I-FEP): Language-minority students initially assessed as not LEP and therefore requiring no special language services or accommodations

• Redesignated fluent English proficient (R-FEP): Language-minority students initially assessed as LEP who have achieved fluent English proficiency (according to local performance criteria) and been reclassified as such.

1. Native-language instruction: Use of English learner’s primary language to provide lessons in core academic subjects or reading and other language arts; usually implies that instruction is delivered by a classroom teacher (who may or may not be a native-speaker).



2. Native-language support: Use of English learner’s primary language to translate unfamiliar vocabulary or otherwise clarify lessons taught in English; often provided by a native-speaking classroom aide, but may be provided by teacher.



3. English as a Second Language (ESL)/ English Language Development (ELD): Any of various approaches to teaching the English language to non-native speakers. As broadly defined in the 1997 TESOL standards, instruction aims to teach students to communicate in social settings, engage in academic tasks, and use language in socially and culturally appropriate ways. Three classic sub-divisions of ESL instructional emphasis are:

• Grammar-based ESL: Instruction in English that teaches about the language: its structure, functions, and vocabulary, typically stressing rules, drills, and error correction.



• Communication-based ESL: Instruction in English that emphasizes using the language skillfully in meaningful contexts; less emphasis on error-correction in early stages, and more on providing understandable input to encourage communicative engagement and lowered resistance to risk-taking.



• Content-based ESL: Instruction in English that attempts to develop language skills and prepare students to study grade-level material in English. Emphasis is still on language, but augmented with measured introduction of academic subject matter content, vocabulary and beginning concepts

4. Sheltered English Instruction (in California, often called "Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English" or SDAIE): Teaching of grade-level subject matter in English in ways that are comprehensible and engage students academically, while also promoting English language development. Designed for English learners who have reached at least intermediate proficiency and who possess basic literacy skills. Method requires significant teacher skill in ELD and subject-specific pedagogies; clearly defined language and content objectives; modified curriculum, supplementary materials, and alternative assessments. Often used as a bridge between primary language instruction and placement in mainstream classroom.

The following are eleven program models currently recognized in the professional literature. Each model is described in detail in three sets of subsequent tables:

1. An inventory identifies goals, target and classroom populations, and languages used to teach literacy and subject matter



2. Types of instructional models provides definitions and characteristics, suggests when appropriate to use, and identifies elements of successful implementation



3. Summary of advantages and concerns highlights particular strengths and potential drawbacks

Bilingual education models initiate instruction in the ELLs’ primary language while developing their English language skills. Note that only two of these models aim for full bilingualism; the others aim for English proficiency only and use the primary language to develop initial literacy skills or facilitate access to academic content while English is developed. Models described include:

• Early-exit transitional bilingual education
• Late-exit transitional bilingual education
• Developmental or maintenance bilingual education
• Bilingual immersion
• Integrated (i.e., non-segregated) transitional bilingual education
• Dual-language or two-way immersion

Immersion education models initiate instruction in the student’s non-native language, teaching the second language and academic content largely or completely in this language.² Note that two of these models also aim for full bilingualism, one for language-majority students (Canadian French immersion), and the other for students of endangered indigenous languages (e.g., Navajo). Models described include:

• English Language Development (ELD) or English as a Second Language (ESL) Pull-out
• Structured English immersion
• Submersion with primary language support
• Canadian French immersion (language-majority students)
• Indigenous language immersion (endangered languages)

¹ U.S. Department of Education has not developed detailed standards on how schools should assess children's language proficiency. The Title VII statutory definition is as follows:
The terms "limited English proficiency" and "limited English proficient", when used with reference to an individual, mean an individual
(A) who
    (i) was not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English and comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; or
    (ii) is a Native American or Alaska Native or who is a native resident of the outlying areas and comes from an environment where a language other than English has had a significant impact on such individual's level of English language proficiency; or
    (iii) is migratory and whose native language is other than English and comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; and

(B) who has sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language and whose difficulties may deny such individual the opportunity to learn successfully in classrooms where the language of instruction is English or to participate fully in our society [P.L. 103-382, Sec. 7501], as cited in Crawford, 1997.

² Canadian French immersion does introduce some instruction in English (students' L1) after first two years, and continues in French (L2) and English for three more years.