Issue Synthesis: Throughout the policy and public arena, the idea that schools need to be held accountable for results, i.e., student achievement, continues to gain widespread support. Current thinking suggests that implementation of an effective accountability system requires establishing content and performance standards for students, aligning curriculum and assessment with the standards, and then ensuring compliance through rewards and sanctions. Rewards have included a range of cash incentives for teachers or schools, while sanctions bring the threat of school or district takeover by experts or other government officials. Research also suggests that support and coordination at the state, district, and school level is vital to the implementation of effective accountability systems. Kentucky and Texas are two states that have implemented comprehensive accountability systems.

Several issues are emerging as the movement toward school accountability progresses. Researcher Paul Hill and some district and school officials contend that past experiments with "top down" accountability have failed and should be abandoned for ones with more local control. Another emerging issue is the need for internal accountability, or real change in the professional culture, as well as the external accountability for student achievement. Thirdly, numerous policy makers and educators note the need for both time and money to be allocated to build the capacity of teachers and administrators to implement new standards and assessments. Lastly, equity regarding students with special needs continues to be a quandary for many states and districts. As yet, most accountability systems have not counted results for those in special education, with learning disabilities, or with limited English proficiency.

WestEd Research and Development

Accountability Dialogues: Book and Video Set, by Kate Jamentz (2001)
This concise 72-page book explains some of the common misperceptions about school accountability and provides a strong rationale for including Accountability Dialogues in any accountability system. The 10-minute videotape visits three schools where parents, teachers, and district administrators and school board members are engaged in Accountability Dialogues. Used with parent and faculty groups, this video can help a school explore the potential of Accountability Dialogues to strengthen their own community and its work.

Building a Workable Accountability System: Policy Brief, by Sri Ananda and Stanley Rabinowitz (2001), PDF format
This Policy Brief identifies and annotates seven key questions that must be carefully addressed in developing or refining a statewide education accountability system: What are its primary goals? What indicators should be included? Which students should be tested, and when? What accountability model best serves the purpose? What consequences can the system support? How can intended and unintended consequences be evaluated?

Building a Workable Accountability System: Key Decision Points for Policymakers and Educators, by Sri Ananda and Stanley Rabinowitz (2001), PDF format
Aimed at policymakers and educators who are either planning or redesigning statewide education accountability systems, this Knowledge Brief identifies and annotates a sequence of seven key questions that must be addressed in developing such a system. It then lays out the issues, options, and potential pitfalls related to each, drawing on the experiences of three states where accountability measures have been implemented: California, Kentucky, and Texas.

The Redesignation Dilemma: Challenges and Choices in Fostering Meaningful Accountability for English Learners, by Robert Linquanti (2001) PDF format
This policy report focuses on the tensions and dilemmas surrounding one of the most common milestones used for defining and measuring English learners’ progress: their redesignation or reclassification from limited to fluent English proficient. The report recommends a number of strategies to improve the current situation. Its ultimate aim is to stimulate reflection and discussion about options for building a more coherent system to better ensure academic success for English learners and accountability for the programs that serve them.

Seamless Schooling, by Joan McRobbie (2001)
In Long Beach, K-12 systems and higher education are working side by side to boost student achievement and improve teacher preparation. This six-year program of "seamless education" is a case study in building community to promote leadership. This article examines the Long Beach program and what accounts for its success.

Developing a Standards-based Assessment System: A Handbook, by Kim O'Neill and Kendyll Stansbury (2000)
A resource for schools and districts interested in developing and implementing a standards-based assessment system, this handbook introduces key steps in the assessment development process, discusses issues to consider when developing and implementing a new assessment system, and provides examples from existing assessment systems.

Comprehensive School Reform: Research-based Strategies to Achieve High Standards, by Sylvie van Heusden Hale, Region XI Northern California (2000)
This 190-page binder and two videotapes can help schools implement a comprehensive school reform effort. Includes step-by-step processes, practical tools, profiles of successful schools, and resources.

The High Stakes of High-Stakes Testing, by Sri Ananda and Stanley N. Rabinowitz (2000), PDF format
This policy brief addresses both the benefits of and concerns raised by use of high-stakes testing. It offers specific recommendations for policymakers seeking to incorporate these tests in state accountability systems.

Education Organizations and Agencies

California Department of Education
The state's site contains several documents related to accountability, including Reaching Higher for Equity and Excellence: Standards-Based Accountability System and Steering by Results, a California Department of Education task force report on rewards and interventions.

Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO)
Comprising public officials who head education departments across the country, CCSSO has a page dedicated to its report on state accountability systems and has also produced several other reports on accountability, accessible on the same page.

Education Commission of the States (ECS)
ECS seeks to help state leaders develop and carry out policies that promote improved performance of the education system as reflected in increased learning by all citizens. Visit the State Policies, Issues, and Activities section of ECS's Information Clearinghouse for information on accountability.

National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST)
Funded by the U.S. Department of Education, CRESST conducts research on important topics related to K-12 educational testing. The site includes links to many reports, including Accountability and Alternative Assessment (PDF format) and Performance-Based Assessment for Accountability Purposes: Taking the Plunge and Assessing the Consequences (PDF format).

National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL)
NCSL is a bipartisan organization serving legislative policymakers by providing comprehensive information on critical state issues. Check out its information on standards, assessment, and accountability.

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NWREL)
This federally funded regional educational laboratory maintains a page dedicated to Assessment and Evaluation.

Advocacy Groups

The Center for Education Reform (CER)
CER is a national nonprofit organization that provides resources, support, and guidance for school reform to communities across the United States. Check out its publication A Primer on School Accountability.

Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE)
Uniting the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, Stanford University, the University of Michigan, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison, CPRE conducts research on accountability issues and has produced several briefs on the issue.

Consortium on Inclusive Schooling Practices (CISP)
CISP represents a collaborative effort to build the capacity of state and local education agencies to serve children with and without disabilities in school and community settings. Check out its Issue Brief, Including Students With Disabilities in Accountability Systems.

Center on Reinventing Public Education (CRPE)
CRPE seeks to develop and evaluate methods of public oversight that can allow individual schools to be focused, effective, and accountable. Check out its publication Toward a K-12 Accountability System in Washington State (PDF format).

National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO)
NCEO provides national leadership in the identification of outcomes and indicators to monitor educational results for all students, including students with disabilities. NCEO addresses the participation of students with disabilities in national and state assessments, standards-setting efforts, and graduation requirements. See its publication Accountability for the Results of Educating Students with Disabilities.

Periodicals

Education Week
EdWeek's Quality Counts 2001 details the findings of an exhaustive, 50-state survey of school policies on accountability.