Berman (1992) notes that early-exit TBE:

makes efficient use of limited bilingual teachers by concentrating them at early grades

maintains native language oral fluency

builds in bilingual communication with parents



Ramirez (1991) found that limited English proficient students in TBE improve their skills in mathematics, English language, and reading better than expected in comparison to at-risk students in the general population.

Berman (1992) notes native language skills may not be fully developed to allow transfer to English.

Ramirez (1991) found most students remain in this program longer than expected.

Brisk (1998) notes that success of early-exit TBE measured more by speed at which students are mainstreamed than content-area learning.

Cummins (1998) maintains "quick-exit transitional bilingual education is an inferior model based on an inadequate theoretical assumption; this model aspires to monolingualism and does little to address the causes of bilingual students’ underachievement."

Encourages proficient bilingual students

Strong promotion of students’ primary language literacy skills not only develops a conceptual foundation for academic growth but also communicates clearly to students value of the cultural and linguistic resources they bring to school (Cummins, 1998).

Increased involvement of minority-language speaking families in children’s education because of home language use.

Students entering late or exiting early from the program (transience)

Maintaining continuity of program model across grades and schools

Appears to improve language arts achievement compared to transitional bilingual programs (Brisk, 1998).

Students may be unprepared for transition to mainstream classrooms.

Increases academic and social contact of minority and majority students through integrated classrooms.

Supports bilingual students who have been mainstreamed

In practice, may become submersion with primary language support, if teachers and language do not have equal status (Brisk 1998).

Dual language Immersion (aka two-way bilingual)

Students learn language and acquire positive cross-cultural attitudes from each other and teachers.

Integrates minority children and English-speaking peers

Evaluations indicate effectiveness in promoting academic achievement and high levels of language proficiency for both groups of students.

Language used in early grades of immersion may be modified to accommodate English speaking students, impacting language development of language-minority students (Valdés, 1997)

Privileged status may be conferred on participating language-majority students (Valdés, 1997).

Unknown effect of programs using languages with different alphabets (i.e. Cantonese/English).

Students with different primary languages can be in the same class.

Flexible in accommodating small numbers of ELLs with diverse languages.

Teachers do not need to be fluent in primary language(s) of students.

Very costly as additional ESL resource teachers must be used.

Does not build on students’ primary language for academic development

Pull-out may stigmatize students or have them miss content instruction

Structured Immersion

Allows for English content instruction for intermediate ELLs.

Students with different primary languages in the same class.

Complex subject matter content could be diluted.

Rapid mainstreaming before development of sufficient English proficiency.

Much variation in models

Definitional blurring common in research

Provides some support and access to comprehensible input

Largely a "sink or swim" method

Neglects literacy development

Insufficient access to academic content

Students achieve a high level of fluency in second language.

Students score at or above norm of English speakers in monolingual English programs in tests of reading and mathematics.

Students’ second language is "fossilized" since there is no contact with native French (L2) speaking peers

Limited interpersonal communication skills

Programs shaped and supported by local people with authority to mold social environment of the school

Rock Point Community School students (AZ-Navajo/English) improved academic achievement, scoring higher than neighboring schools, other Navajo-speaking students on reservation, and other Indian students on CAT reading test (Holm, 1995).

Few texts and curriculum available in indigenous languages.

Few programs extend beyond elementary school.