The Education community is increasingly identifying programs, practices and strategies that are research based. Initiatives such as the What Works Clearinghouse (http://www.w-w-c.org) are providing independent reviews on the effectiveness of educational interventions (programs, products, practices, and policies). Both educators and researchers agree that potential of both existing and new technologies in supporting student learning isn’t in the technologies themselves but the ways they are used as tools for learning. (Valdez & McNabb, 1999) However, the research on using technology for differentiated instruction is far from complete. In fact, according to Roblyer & Knezek (2003), the education field lacks research on both the implications of technology for teaching and learning, and on implementation methods for instructional technology. Findings reported in the recent research synthesis by Waxman, Connell, and Gray (2000) confirm the need for more and better research, and also call for more funding to conduct this research in the area of technology and learning.
Having more in-depth new research and rigorous reviews will take time and committed resources. Meanwhile, we continue to share the need echoed by families, educators and service providers to improve access to education for students for all learners.
Therefore, the focus of the “Tech Tips” website is on how commonly available technology can be used in a differentiated classroom setting to support research based strategies. Our long-term goal includes matching technology tools with supporting literature on promising practices and research based strategies. Some ways in which technology can support a number of research-based strategies for particular students is reported in Babbitt (2004). Throughout the Tech Tips web site we refer to the meta-analysis of more than 100 research reports on instruction done by Marzano et al (2001), which identifies the nine most effective instructional strategies, and discusses how these can be supported by educational technology features and tools along with recommendations for their use.
The use of technology to support differentiated instruction is included in work and literature reviews from organizations that focus on supporting the needs of diverse learners.
In particular we have been guided by organizations such as:
Part One - Overview of Research Sources
We have drawn on the work of Strangman & Hall, T. (2003) and their review of the impact of many of the digital supports and technology tools referenced in the “Tech Tips” such as “talking text”, multimedia, and word processing features. The research studies reviewed in this paper were conducted in K-12 education settings. They incorporate findings from an expansive survey of the peer-reviewed literature between 1980 and 2002. One of the criteria used to review the studies was “factors influencing effectiveness” which supports the idea that educational technology cannot be studied independently of instruction and the learner. So, when doing research on the effectiveness of educational technology, we need to understand ”what works for whom”– i.e. which students benefit from what type of instruction and educational technology practice.
We refer to the literature review as cited in “Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation” (Hall, Strangman & Meyer 2003) in particular the annotated references on Differentiated Instruction.
We reference the National Reading Panel report(2002). The report concluded from a small number of studies that the addition of speech to print presented on computers may be a promising practice and that some students can benefit from the use of computer technology in reading instruction. It noted that computers may encourage students to interact instructionally with text for greater amounts of time than they would with only conventional instruction. The report called for additional research, especially on the use of hypertext, to provide assistance to the struggling reader, and on word processing. It mentions a striking lack of research on the use of Internet applications, the use of computer technology to perform speech recognition, and the use of multimedia presentations in the context of reading instruction.
We also recommended Technology and Teaching Children to Read from NEIR*TEC for in-depth information on using technology to support reading instruction.
We suggest reviewing Focus on Effectiveness, an online product from the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory which brings together two resources to improve classroom results: research about effective instructional practices, and carefully selected technology tools and recommendations for their use.
Math Matrix and the Reading Matrix are searchable tools housed at The National Center for Technology Innovation. These tools allow you to search for evidence and products for the use of technology that supports students with special needs.
Part One - References
- Babbit, B. (n.d.). 10 tips for software selection for math instruction.
Retrieved 10/7/05 from http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/technology/babbitt_math_tips.html/
- Hall, T., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2003). Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation,
Retrieved 10/13/05 from http://www.k8accesscenter.org/training_resources/udl/diffinstruction.asp
- Marzano, R. J. (with Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J.). (2003) Classroom Management that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction.
Retrieved 10/13/05 from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm
- North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) (n.d.). A Quantitative Synthesis of Recent Research on the Effects of Teaching and Learning With Technology on Student Outcomes.
Retrieved 10/7/05 from http://www.ncrel.org/tech/effects/
- Northeast and the Islands Regional Technology in Education Consortium (n.d.). Technology and Teaching Children to Read.
Retrieved 10/13/05 from http://www.neirtec.org/reading_report/
- Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NWREL)(n.d.). Focus on Effectiveness
Retrieved 11/7/05 from http://www.netc.org/focus/
- Roblyer,M.D. & Knezek, G. A. (2003). New Millennium Research for Educational Technology: A Call for a National Research Agenda, Journal of Research on Technology in Education. 36 (1)
- Strangman, N., & Hall, T. (2003).Text transformations. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.
Retrieved 9/29/05 from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_textrans.html
- Valdez, G., & McNabb, M. (1999). Computer-based technology and learning: Evolving uses and expectations. Oakbrook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
- Waxman, H. C., Connell, M. L., & Gray, J. (2002). A quantitative synthesis of recent research on the effects of teaching and learning with technology on student outcomes. Naperville, IL : North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
Retrieved 21/10/05 from http://www.ncrel.org/tech/effects/effects.pdf
Part Two - Suggested Research Links By Topic
Within each topic area and tip covered by the ”tech tips” there are additional links to research sources. Please note, this research information is in no way complete. Our main purpose is to spotlight examples of research that has taken place; in some cases there is a need for more rigorous research.
The term “differentiated instruction” is often associated with the work of Carol Ann Tomlinson. For example refer, to Tomlinson, C. (2001). Much of the research in this area has focused on using technology to support reading and writing.
References
- Tomlinson, C. (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms,
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
- Tomlinson, C. (1995) Gifted Learners and the Middle School: Problem or Promise?
The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education Digest #E535.
Retrieved 10/10/2005 from http://www.ldonline.org/article.php?max=20&id=716&loc=24/
- Tomlinson, C. (1995) Differentiating Instruction For Advanced Learners In the Mixed-Ability Middle School Classroom, The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education Digest #E536
Retrieved on 10/10/2005 from http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/diff_instruction.html
- Scott Willis and Larry Mann (2002) Differentiating Instruction: Finding Manageable Ways to Meet Individual Needs, Curriculum Update, Winter 2000, ASCD
- At the ACCESS Center site you will find links to background information on differentiated instruction and how it can be applied to enhance reading, writing, math and science instruction.
For example review the short brief titled Differentiated Instruction for Reading
Retrieved 10/10/05 from http://www.k8accesscenter.org/training_resources/readingdifferentiation.asp
- In a study of classroom strategies researchers examined how effective classroom teachers interacted with specific types of students. The study found that the most effective classroom managers did not treat all students the same; they tended to employ different strategies with different types of students. In contrast, ineffective classroom managers did not appear sensitive to the diverse needs of students.
- Brophy, J. E. (1996). Teaching problem students. New York: Guilford.
- Brophy, J. E., & McCaslin, N. (1992). Teachers' reports of how they perceive and cope with problem students. Elementary School Journal, 93, 3–68.
 View Tech Tip
Some researchers claim that the use of technology has not demonstrated any significant advantage over traditional non-technology based approaches to learning. One of the factors influencing technology’s effectiveness is implementation. Teachers are key in supporting the learning process, so when implementing new technologies into the curriculum, professional development and leadership are essential.
References
- The Learning Return” is a literature review that summarizes major research findings related to technology use and provides guidance, intended primarily for people developing school or district technology plans, on the conditions that need to be in place for computer-based technology to have the most impact on student learning.
Retrieved 11/29/05 from http://rtecexchange.edgateway.net/cs/rtecp/view/rtec_topics/47
- StarTech is a research based professional development model designed to help teachers integrate a full range of technology tools into the curriculum and improve the performance of students with diverse abilities and needs by using a variety of low-, mid-, and high-technology tools.
Retrieved 10/10/05 from:
http://www.startechprogram.org
- Focus on Effectiveness, web site was created in response to client requests for research-based strategies that align with effective use of technology to increase student achievement. At this web site the section on “Integrating Technologies” introduces technologies—both familiar and emerging—that are changing the way students learn. Under each section key researching findings are cited and implementation tips are listed.
Retrieved from 10/10/05: http://www.netc.org/focus/technologies
 View Tech Tip
The flexibility of digital text to be searched, manipulated and enhanced to support different learners is been studied by many different groups.
References
 View Tech Tip
The impact that digital text transformations, and the type of curriculum enhancements that improve student learning needs to be further research. Strangman, N., & Hall, T.(2003) conclude that “the body of literature is too small to draw many supported conclusions” on the effectiveness of electronic texts in the classroom.
References
- Strangman, N., & Hall, T. (2003). Text transformations. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.
Retrieved 09/29/05 from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_textrans.html
(Note: In this document they continued that "the body of literature is too small to draw many supported conclusions" on the effectiveness of electronic texts in the classroom but point out that what research there is cautions "that some characteristics can undermine electronic text's effectiveness".)
Tip: Enhanced text
The extent that students can benefit from multimedia instruction through enhanced text materials and how to link these to research based practices to improve student learning is under continual review. The National Reading Panel (2000) concluded that there appear to be many students who benefit from multimedia instruction. Enhanced text materials incorporate many of the techniques that have been shown to enhance text comprehension, including:
- asking questions that allow self-monitoring for understanding,
- using graphic and semantic organizers,
- generating students' questions about the text,
- becoming aware of story structure, and
- periodically summarizing key points.
The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) found that:
“Students who read novels in a digital format with decoding supports are more motivated to read because they can access the content at an age-appropriate level that is just challenging enough.”
The literature review on digital enhancements can be found in the bibliography of the Intersect Project.
Retrieved 10/10/05 from http://intersect.uoregon.edu/DigitalLibrary/bibliography.html
References
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction.
Retrieved 10/10/05 from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm
- O'Neill, L., & Dalton, B. (2002). Thinking readers: Supporting beginning reading in children with cognitive disabilities through technology. Exceptional Parent 32(6): 40-43.
 View Tech Tip
Tip: Talking Text
Talking text is an important tool for supporting comprehension for some students, and several research studies have identified its promise for helping students with reading disabilities comprehend written materials. Strangman, N., & Hall, T. (2003) identified 13 studies relating to the effectiveness of text-to-speech or recorded speech as a learning tool in the classroom. They concluded it can be valuable tool, but its effectiveness is contingent on number factors. A report showed that students with learning disabilities showed a 38 percent increase in content acquisition reading scores after using Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic (RFB&D's) AudioPlus® textbooks on CD. (Boyle et al., 2003) Developing reading comprehension is a complex skill. If a great deal of effort goes to sounding out words, energy for comprehension is reduced. The studies show that “talking text” can provide one more tool for supporting comprehension for some students.
(Rose, D. & Dalton, B. (2002).
References
- Boyle, E., Rosenberg , M.S., Connelly, V. Washburn, S. G., Brinkerhoff, L., & Banerjee, M., (2003). The Effects of Audio Texts on the Acquisition of Secondary Content by Students with Mild Disabilities, Learning Disabilities Quarterly.
Retrieved 10/10/2005 from http://www.rfbd.org/mediapr23.htm
- Rose, D. & Dalton, B. (2002). Using Technology to Individualize Reading Instruction”
In C.C. Block, L. B. Gambrell & M. Pressley (Eds.), Improving comprehension
Instruction: Rethinking research, theory, and classroom practice. San Francisco: Jossey
Bass Publishers.
- Strangman, N., & Hall, T. (2003). Text transformations. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.
Retrieved 9/29/05 from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_textrans.html
 View Tech Tip
Marzano et al., (2001) identified “Identifying similarities and differences” as one of the most successful instructional strategies. Word processors, graphics software such as Kid Pix®, or graphic organizers such as Kidspiration® to allow students to build charts, tables, and graphs that express classification and comparison. These can all be done using paper and pencil but the computer offers flexibility for the student who needs to hear it, needs to see it in color, or needs to interact with it. The importance of software having these features built into their standard design to allow for students to have universal access is well documented. Those interested are directed to review the Reading Matrix for evidence of technologies that support reading for students with reading disabilities. Retrieved 10/10/05 from: http://www.nationaltechcenter.org/matrix/default.asp In addition, the Math Matrix is a searchable database that presents evidence and products for the use of technologies that support the instruction of mathematics for students with special needs.
Retrieved 10/10/05 from: http://www.citeducation.org/mathmatrix
References
- Marzano, R. J. (with Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J.). (2003) Classroom Management that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
- Means, B., & Olson, K. (1997). Technology and education reform. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Contract No. RP91-172010. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Meyer, B. (1975). The organization of prose and its effects on memory. Amsterdam: North Holland Press.
- Schacter, J. (1999). The Impact of education technology on student achievement. Santa Monica, CA: Milken Exchange in Education Technology
Tip: Word Processors( i.e Microsoft® Word)
Many studies have shown word processors to be beneficial. For example, some studies have specifically targeted computer-based outlining as a study tool for various types of students.
References
Word Sub Topic Tip: Electronic Highlighting
Highlighting is a low-tech strategy that can be used electronically to highlight specific words, letters, or parts of speech. Adding color to text increases the odds that the information will be stored in long-term memory and be more readily recalled (Denby, 2002).
References
Word Sub Topic Tip: AutoSummarize
AutoSummarize lets you see your document at different levels of detail. Research by the National Reading Panel found that summarization is an effective strategy that helps readers improve memory and identification of main ideas.
References
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction.
Retrieved 10/10/05 from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm
Word Sub Topic Tip: Portable Computers
Research demonstrates that students' interest in writing is increased when using computers, and devices such as E-mates and AlphaSmarts. Writing on a computer has a positive effect on the quality of student writing. This impact is greatest for students with learning disabilities and students in the early elementary grades.
References
- Curtis, M., Luchini, K., Bobrowsky, W., Quintana, C., & Soloway, E. (2002). Handheld use in K-12: A descriptive account. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, Vaexjoe, Sweden.
Retrieved 10/10/05 from http://java.cs.vt.edu/public/classes/communities/readings/Curtis-Soloway-2002.pdf
- Etchison, C. (1989). Word Processing: A Helpful Tool for Basic Writers. Computers and Composition, 6(2), 33—43.
- Hannafin, Michael J. & Dalton, David W. (1987). The Effects of Word Processing on Written Composition. The Journal of Educational Research, 80 (July/Aug.) 338—42.
- Kerchner, Leanne B. & Kistinger, Barbara J. (1984). Language Processing/Word Processing: Written Expression, Computers, and Learning Disabled Students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 7(4), 329—335.
- Padgett, Ann L. (2000). Journal Writing in the Elementary School: Word Processor vs. Paper and Pencil. Master of Arts Research Paper, Johnson Bible College. ERIC: ED441255.
- Vacc, Nancy N. (1987). Word Processor versus Handwriting: A Comparative Study of Writing Samples Produced by Mildly Mentally Handicapped Students. Exceptional Children, 54(2) 156—165.
- Williamson, Michael L. & Pence, Penny. (1989). Word Processing and Student Writers. In Bruce K. Britton & Shawn M. Glynn (Eds.), Computer Writing Environments: Theory, Research, and Design. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. 96-127.
 View Tech Tip
Marzano et al., (2003) identified nonlinguistic representation as one of the nine most effective instructional strategies. This concept is based on the idea that knowledge is stored in two forms—linguistic (words) and imagery (mental pictures). Graphic organizers, multi-media, and image-filled Web sites provide these dual channels to increase retention and learning. Focus on Effectiveness , references research about effective instructional practices, and carefully selected technology tools such as nonlinguistic representation.
References
- Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
- Brodie, K., Carpenter, L., Earnshaw, R., Gallop, J., Hubbold, R., Mumford, A., Osland, C., & Quarendon, P. (1992). Scientific Visualization. Berlin: Springer-Verlag
- Marzano, R. J. (with Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J.). (2003) Classroom Management that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
- Michalchik, V., Rosenquist, A., Kozma, R., Kreikemeier, P., Schank, P., & Coppola, B. (submitted). Representational Competence and Chemical Understanding in the High School Chemistry Classroom. Submitted to Journal of the Learning Sciences.
Tip: Graphic Organizers
Research shows that the teaching of the thinking strategies involved in graphic organizers leads students to use them independently and that using graphic organizers in pre-reading helps students relate new information to their existing knowledge. Berger states that “Direct teaching of the thinking strategies involved in graphic organizers leads students to use them independently”. Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research, prepared by the Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at EDVANTIA, reviews twenty-nine scientifically based research studies, providing evidence in support of the instructional effectiveness of the use of graphic organizers.
The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory publishes Pathways to School Improvement, which includes Critical Issues. Building on Prior Knowledge and Meaningful Student Contexts/Cultures. This resource discusses the use of advanced organizers.
References
-
Berger, S. (2003) The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education Minibib EB21 Graphic Organizers.
Retrieved 10/10/2005 from http://ericec.org/minibibs/eb21.html
- Robinson, D. H., & Kiewra, K. A. (1996). Visual argument: Graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 455-467.
- Scruggs, Thomas E.; Mastropieri, M. A.; Monson, J.; & Jorgenson, C. (1985). Maximizing what gifted students can learn: Recent findings of learning strategy research. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29(4), 181-185. EJ 333 116.
- Strangman, N., Hall, T., & Meyer, A. (2003). Graphic organizers with UDL. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.
Retrieved 11/08/2005 from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_goudl.html
 View Tech Tip
More research is needed on how technology enhances cognitive supports in curricular materials and how these materials can be used with promising practices to support all students. For example, Strangman et al.,(2003) state that more research is needed to address “features that may impact the success of computer and software programs in elevating learning outcomes.” The authors conclude that present findings suggest that different students may benefit from different features.
References
- Strangman, N., & Hall, T. (2003). Text transformations. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.
Retrieved 9/29/05 from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_textrans.html
- Reading Online describes a study that focused on the potential of multimedia, technology-based teaching materials, and instructional approaches to improve learning for all students, including those with learning disabilities.
Retrieved 9/29/05 from http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=loeterman/index.html
- Review the Reading Matrix for evidence of technologies that support reading for students with reading disabilities.
Retrieved 9/29/05 from http://www.nationaltechcenter.org/matrix/default.asp
- Explore the work of Dr.Anderson-Inman who has pioneered the concept of "computer-supported studying", and conducted research and developed materials on strategies designed to promote effective learning through the use of technology.
Retrieved 9/29/05 from http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=ebook/index.html
- Honey, M.A. & Anderson–Inman, L. (1999). “Supported text in electronic reading environments”. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 15, 127-168
Tip: Math
Computer-aided instruction has been shown to be an effective tool for mathematics instruction. Students who use appropriate technology persist longer, enjoy learning more, and make gains in math performance. The potential of hypermedia to improve mathematical performance is being realized in today's software design.
References
- Babbitt, B. C., & Miller, S. P. (1997) Using hypermedia to improve the mathematics problem-solving skills of students with learning disabilities. In K. Higgins & R. Boone (Eds.) Technology for students with learning disabilities (pp. 91-108). Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
- Goldman, J., & Pellegrino, J. W. (1987). Information processing and microcomputer technology: Where do we go from here? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 336-340.
- Okolo, C. M., Bahr, C. M., & Reith, H. J. (1993). A retrospective view of computer-based instruction. Journal of Special Education Technology, 12(1).
 View Tech Tip
Several Meta-analyses or large-scale research syntheses document the efficacy of reading comprehension strategy instruction: e.g Mastropieri, Scruggs, Bakken, & Whedon (1996). Such findings have identified some very promising strategies that work with students with disabilities. Examples can be found at the Reading Matrix for evidence of technologies that support reading for students with reading disabilities and at the Math Matrix, a searchable database that presents evidence and products for the use of technologies that support the instruction of mathematics for students with special needs.
References
- MacArthor, C.A, Ferretti, R.P.,Okolo, C.M.,& Cavalier, A.R.(2001). Technology applications for students with literacy problems: A critical review. The Elementary School, 101, 273-301.
- Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Bakken, J.P., & Whedon, C. (1996). Reading comprehension: A synthesis of research in learning disabilities” Invention research. 10(Part B), 201-227.Greenwich, CT:JAI Press.
- Meyers, Laura. 1994. Access and Meaning: The Keys to Effective Computer Use by Children with Language Disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology. 12(3), 256-75
- Rosegrant, Teresa 1985. Using the Microcomputer as a Tool for Learning to Read and Write. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 18(2), 113-5
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