Implications of the Research

There is ample evidence that time plays an important role in student learning outcomes. However, as the research described above makes clear, it is the quality of education time that is the critical determinant of how much students will learn. When combined with good school and classroom management and with effective instruction, time becomes an important variable in student learning. To the extent that students spend more time actively engaged in learning activities, particularly when at an appropriate level of difficulty, their achievement will increase. Inherent in this analysis of research on time and learning are the following implications:

1. In cases where time is already well utilized, such that there is a high proportion of engaged and academic learning time, extending the length of the school day or year is likely to have the desired outcome of increasing student achievement.

As the research literature demonstrates, the degree to which education time is related to student learning depends on the quality of the time. When school schedules maximize the amount of time available for learning; when instructional time is devoted in large part to academic subjects; when classroom time is well managed; and when curriculum and instruction are appropriate and motivating, students can be expected to learn. Under these conditions, increasing time for learning is likely to lead to increased student learning.

2. In cases where time is not already well utilized, increasing allocated time is not likely to produce substantial gains in student achievement. In such cases, the first step should be to improve the quality of existing time.

As the research literature suggests, allocated time by itself has little if any direct impact on student learning. Thus, increasing allocated time -- the one time variable state level policy makers can affect -- does not translate directly to increased student achievement, because it does not necessarily increase the amount of engaged or academic learning time. Most studies conclude that, without first improving the quality of instruction, extending time by itself is not likely to lead to significant improvements in student learning. While a very large extension of time -- adding several weeks to the school calendar, for example -- may produce student achievement gains, the cost of doing so would likely be prohibitive. Moreover, available research suggests it would not be as cost-effective as other reforms aimed at increasing student achievement. Historically, state policy makers and public opinion have rejected such dramatic time extensions, in large part because of the associated price tag. (52)

3. At the school level, strategies such as better time management, increasing the proportion of time spent on academic subjects and adopting alternative academic calendars can help to maximize the amount of time available for student learning.

As the research literature suggests, in many instances existing education time is eroded by school schedules that devote too much time to activities not directly leading to student learning. Efforts to reduce the time given over to school assemblies, disruptive announcements over the public address system and passing between classes, for example, can increase the time available for learning. Schools might also consider requiring that students spend more of their time taking academic courses, perhaps making elective courses available before or after the formal school day.

In addition, alternative schedules can maximize the time available for learning. Year round schedules, for example, have been demonstrated to shorten the long "summer of forgetting," reducing the amount of time needed for review each fall. (53) The periodic vacation breaks in a year-round schedule, known as intersessions, can be used for remediation or acceleration activities, thereby accommodating students' differing needs. (54) Block scheduling has been shown to maximize instructional time, allowing for more in-depth instruction and interdisciplinary instruction. (55) Block scheduling also reduces the time traditionally devoted to passing between shorter class periods and to starting and stopping activities. (56)

4. The key to increasing student learning is to maximize the amount of academic learning time; that is, to utilize education time so that students are actively engaged in learning at appropriate levels of difficulty.

This involves, most importantly, improving instructional techniques that engage students and accommodates their different learning backgrounds and styles. As the research indicates, this requires teachers to engage students in learning activities that are appropriately challenging, that provide sufficient opportunities for students to experience success and that are, therefore, motivating. Techniques such as small group work, peer tutoring, providing specific feedback on student work and providing clear expectations have been demonstrated to be particularly effective. As the research evidence suggests, such activities are likely to encourage students to stay in school, reducing their likelihood of dropping out and further increasing the amount of education time students receive.

The research evidence also strongly suggests that teachers must improve their classroom management skills to reduce the large amount of potential instructional time typically lost to non-learning activities.

5. Standards-based education increases the need to give students more academic learning time.

Standards-based education accentuates the need for more time. Students will need considerably more time if they are to master more challenging curriculum content. In addition, since different students learn in different ways and at different rates, more time will be needed to ensure that all students are able to attain standards for what they know and can do. Holding all students to the same high standards means that some students will need more time, while others need less time, to attain and demonstrate mastery in a given area. This will necessitate schools providing the flexibility and creativity that would allow students to move through curriculum at their own pace and receive the support they need to master content, as well as to demonstrate that they have done so. Mastering world-class standards will require more time for almost all students.

6. Teachers also need more time, especially for professional development.

Teachers will also require substantially more time in a standards-based education system. In particular, they will require substantial professional development in areas of curriculum development, teaching standards-based curriculum and assessment. (57) In addition, in order to make the most out of existing instructional time, many teachers will need training in classroom management. As noted earlier, the research evidence suggests that the majority of teachers need to improve the manner in which they use instructional time. Professional development, when done correctly, has been shown to be an effective means of improving both the way teachers use classroom time and the quality of instruction they provide, so that more classroom time is used for academic learning time. (58)

7. Time outside of school can be used to enhance student learning.

There are a number of ways to increase time for learning outside of the time allocated for school. Homework can extend the amount of learning time beyond school hours.

Starting in the middle grades, when the quality and quantity of assignments are appropriate, homework has been shown to have beneficial effects on achievement. Parent involvement is another important factor; student achievement increases when parents are aware of what students are doing in school and provide support. Other factors, such as how students spend their free time, can effect learning outcomes. For example, watching too much television or working too many hours per week can be detrimental, while extracurricular activities such as internships, community service activities, part-time jobs and sports can enhance student learning opportunities.

This paper was prepared for the PACE Media/ Education Writers Seminar (April 20, 1998).

Funding for this paper is partially provided by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. The contents of this document do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education.

For more information, contact Joy Zimmerman at:

WestEd
730 Harrison St.
San Francisco, CA 94107
(415) 565-3004

jzimmer@WestEd.org